Bricks and Tiles
Introduction to bricks,Raw materials,Manufacturing of bricks (manual/mechanically), BIS: 1077,BIS: 3495,Building tiles,Ceramic, terrazo and PVC,Vitrified tiles, Paver blocks, interlocking,Stacking of bricks.
9/20/202623 min read
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Bricks and Tiles: Complete Study of Materials, Manufacturing, BIS Standards, Types, Paver Blocks and Stacking
Bricks and tiles are among the most important manufactured materials used in civil engineering and building construction. Bricks are traditionally associated with walls, partitions, foundations and other masonry work, while tiles are widely used for floors, walls, roofs, pavements, bathrooms, kitchens, terraces and decorative surfaces. Modern construction has expanded the range of products from traditional burnt clay bricks to mechanically manufactured bricks, ceramic tiles, vitrified tiles, terrazzo products, PVC flooring and concrete interlocking paver blocks.
For civil engineering students, site engineers and construction professionals, understanding these materials requires more than knowing their names. Their raw materials, manufacturing processes, physical properties, dimensional requirements, strength, water absorption, surface characteristics, testing methods, storage and application all influence the performance of a building.
This article covers the major topics under Bricks and Tiles, including:
Introduction to Bricks
Raw Materials for Bricks
Manufacturing of Bricks
Manual and Mechanical Manufacturing
BIS: IS 1077
BIS: IS 3495
Building Tiles
Ceramic Tiles
Terrazzo Tiles
PVC Tiles and Flooring
Vitrified Tiles
Paver Blocks
Interlocking Paver Blocks
Stacking of Bricks
Site Quality Control and Practical Precautions
1. Introduction to Bricks
Bricks are small, regularly shaped building units used primarily for masonry construction. Traditional bricks are generally manufactured from suitable clay or other earthy materials, shaped into units, dried and fired in a kiln. The firing process develops strength, hardness, durability and resistance to weathering.
Bricks have been used for thousands of years because they are relatively easy to manufacture, transport, handle and lay. Their modular shape also makes them suitable for constructing walls with mortar joints.
A good brick should have adequate compressive strength, reasonably low water absorption, proper shape and dimensions, good resistance to weathering and freedom from excessive cracks or defects.
In India, IS 1077:1992 is the standard titled “Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks — Specification.” It lays down requirements relating to classification, general quality, dimensions and physical requirements of common burnt clay building bricks. The standard also points to separate requirements for heavy-duty burnt clay bricks where higher strength is required
Importance of Bricks in Construction
Bricks are commonly used for:
Load-bearing walls
Partition walls
External walls
Internal walls
Boundary walls
Foundations in suitable traditional construction
Arches
Parapets
Paving applications using suitable paving bricks
Architectural and exposed masonry
Small structures and utility buildings
The actual application should depend on the grade, type and relevant specification of the brick.
Characteristics of a Good Brick
A satisfactory brick generally possesses:
Uniform shape
Proper dimensions
Sharp and reasonably straight edges
Uniform texture
Adequate strength
Appropriate water absorption
Resistance to weathering
Proper burning
Absence of harmful cracks
Absence of excessive lime nodules
Acceptable surface appearance
Good resistance to handling and transportation
A simple site inspection can identify many defective bricks before they enter masonry work.
2. Raw Materials Used for Bricks
The principal raw material for traditional burnt clay bricks is brick earth, generally consisting of clay, silt, sand and other mineral constituents in suitable proportions.
The properties of the raw material have a direct influence on the quality of the finished brick.
2.1 Clay
Clay provides the plasticity required for shaping the brick.
When water is added to suitable clay, the material becomes plastic and can be moulded into the required shape. During drying, water is removed. During firing, mineral transformations occur and the particles become strongly bonded.
However, excessive clay can cause considerable shrinkage and cracking during drying and firing. Therefore, brick earth must have an appropriate composition.
2.2 Silica
Silica is generally present in the form of sand.
It helps control shrinkage during drying and firing. An appropriate quantity contributes to dimensional stability.
Excessive silica, however, can reduce plasticity and make moulding difficult.
2.3 Alumina
Alumina contributes to the plasticity of clay.
A suitable amount allows the raw material to be moulded without excessive difficulty.
Too much alumina may result in excessive shrinkage and cracking during drying.
2.4 Lime
Small quantities of lime may be present naturally in brick earth.
Finely distributed lime can participate in reactions during firing. However, coarse or excessive lime particles can become problematic. If unslaked lime particles remain in the finished brick and subsequently come into contact with water, expansion can occur and cause cracking or disintegration.
2.5 Iron Oxide
Iron oxide strongly influences the colour of traditional burnt clay bricks.
It can contribute to the familiar red, reddish-brown or brown appearance of fired bricks, depending on the composition and firing conditions.
Iron-bearing minerals also participate in reactions during firing that influence the final characteristics of the brick.
2.6 Magnesia and Other Constituents
Small quantities of magnesia and other minerals may be present in natural brick earth.
The overall composition of the clay deposit is important because brick manufacturing depends on the interaction of all constituents rather than on one individual component.
3. Preparation of Brick Earth
Before moulding, the raw earth normally requires preparation.
The objective is to obtain a reasonably homogeneous material with appropriate moisture and consistency.
Typical operations include:
Removal of vegetation and organic matter
Removal of stones and unwanted materials
Excavation
Breaking of large lumps
Weathering
Pulverization
Mixing
Addition of water
Tempering or pugging
Final preparation for moulding
Weathering
Weathering involves exposing excavated clay to atmospheric conditions for a period of time.
The process helps break down lumps and improve workability.
Pugging
Pugging is the process of mixing clay with water until a homogeneous plastic mass is obtained.
Modern brick plants often use mechanical mixers or pug mills for this purpose.
4. Manufacturing of Bricks
Brick manufacturing can broadly be divided into the following stages:
Preparation of raw material → Moulding → Drying → Burning/Firing → Cooling → Sorting → Storage
Each stage is important.
4.1 Preparation of Soil
Suitable soil is selected and excavated.
Large particles, roots, stones and other unwanted materials are removed.
The material is then pulverized and mixed.
Water is added gradually until the desired consistency is obtained.
4.2 Moulding
Moulding converts the prepared clay into individual brick units.
Moulding can be:
Manual
Mechanical
The choice depends on production quantity, available machinery, required dimensional accuracy and economic considerations.
5. Manual Manufacturing of Bricks
Traditional brick manufacturing commonly uses manual moulding.
The prepared clay is placed into a brick mould.
The mould is generally wetted or treated appropriately to prevent excessive sticking. Clay is pressed into the mould and excess material is removed.
The mould is then lifted, leaving a newly formed green brick.
Basic Manual Moulding Sequence
Prepare brick earth.
Add the required quantity of water.
Temper the clay.
Prepare the mould.
Place clay inside the mould.
Press the clay properly.
Remove excess clay.
Lift the mould carefully.
Leave the green brick for initial drying.
Move the partially dried bricks for further drying.
Stack dried bricks for firing.
Manual moulding is relatively simple and requires less machinery. However, production depends heavily on worker skill.
Dimensional consistency may also vary if moulding is not carefully controlled.
6. Mechanical Manufacturing of Bricks
Mechanical manufacturing is used where higher production rates and better dimensional consistency are required.
The prepared clay is processed through machinery that can perform mixing, de-airing, extrusion, cutting and other operations.
One common approach is extrusion.
Prepared clay is forced through a die to produce a continuous column of clay having the required cross-sectional shape. The column is then cut into individual green bricks.
Modern production may involve:
Raw material crushers
Screens
Mixers
Pug mills
Vacuum extruders
Wire cutters
Automatic handling systems
Drying chambers
Tunnel kilns
Sorting systems
Mechanical production can improve uniformity and production capacity.
7. Drying of Bricks
Freshly moulded bricks contain considerable moisture.
They must be dried before firing.
If wet bricks are placed directly into a high-temperature kiln, rapid evaporation can generate internal stresses and cause cracking or even breakage.
Therefore, drying is an essential stage.
Natural Drying
In traditional production, green bricks are arranged in open yards and allowed to dry naturally.
Factors affecting drying include:
Temperature
Relative humidity
Wind
Brick dimensions
Clay composition
Initial moisture
Arrangement of bricks
The bricks must be handled carefully during this stage because they have low strength.
Artificial Drying
Modern plants may use controlled drying chambers.
Artificial drying can provide:
Better control
More uniform moisture removal
Reduced drying time
Improved production scheduling
Reduced dependence on weather
8. Burning or Firing of Bricks
Dry green bricks are fired in a kiln.
Firing is one of the most important stages in brick production because it produces the permanent transformation from a relatively weak dried clay unit into a hard ceramic building product.
During firing, several physical and chemical changes occur.
The temperature is increased according to a controlled schedule.
The important stages include:
Preheating
Removal of remaining moisture
Heating
Ceramic reactions
Maturation
Cooling
The firing temperature and duration depend on the raw material, product and kiln technology.
Under-burning can produce weak, porous and poorly matured bricks.
Over-burning can cause excessive deformation, vitrification or distortion.
Therefore, proper firing control is essential.
9. Cooling, Sorting and Grading
After firing, bricks must cool.
Sudden uncontrolled cooling may produce thermal stresses.
After cooling, the bricks are inspected and sorted.
Defective bricks may include units with:
Excessive cracks
Severe distortion
Inadequate burning
Excessive burning
Broken corners
Improper dimensions
Surface defects
Other unacceptable characteristics
The acceptable bricks are then separated according to their intended use and quality requirements.
10. BIS IS 1077 — Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks
IS 1077:1992 is titled “Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks — Specification.”
According to the BIS preview, the standard specifies requirements for the classification, general quality, dimensions and physical requirements of common burnt clay building bricks used in buildings. (BIS Services)
The standard is important because it establishes a common technical basis for evaluating these bricks.
Main Areas Covered
The standard addresses aspects such as:
Classification
General quality
Dimensions
Physical requirements
Sampling-related references
Testing-related references
IS 1077 references the IS 3495 series for important tests of burnt clay bricks. (BIS Services)
It also distinguishes ordinary common burnt clay building bricks from heavy-duty burnt clay bricks covered by another specification when higher strength is required. (BIS Services)
Practical Importance
At a construction site, engineers should not select bricks only by colour.
The important questions include:
What standard applies?
What grade is required?
What strength is required?
What water absorption is acceptable?
Are the dimensions consistent?
Are the bricks properly burnt?
Are there visible defects?
Has laboratory testing been conducted where required?
11. BIS IS 3495 — Tests on Burnt Clay Building Bricks
The IS 3495 series deals with methods of testing burnt clay building bricks.
The current BIS listings show important revisions compared with the older 1992 references. For example, IS 3495 Part 1:2019 covers determination of compressive strength, while Parts 2, 3 and 4:2019 cover water absorption, efflorescence and warpage respectively. Part 5:2021 covers initial rate of absorption, and Part 6:2022 covers modulus of rupture. (BIS Services)
This distinction is important for educational material: IS 1077:1992 remains the product specification referenced here, while the IS 3495 test series has subsequently been revised in several parts.
12. IS 3495 Part 1 — Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is one of the most important properties of a brick.
A brick used in masonry must resist compressive loads transferred through walls and other structural elements.
The compressive strength test determines the load-carrying capacity of the brick under compression.
The general principle is:
Compressive Strength = Maximum Load / Loaded Area
The result is generally expressed in N/mm².
The test helps determine whether bricks meet the strength requirements associated with their specified class.
BIS identifies IS 3495 Part 1:2019 as the standard for determination of compressive strength of burnt clay building bricks. (BIS Services)
13. IS 3495 Part 2 — Water Absorption
Bricks are porous ceramic products.
They can absorb water through their pores.
The water absorption test determines the quantity of water absorbed by the brick under the specified test procedure.
High water absorption can be associated with excessive porosity and may affect durability and masonry performance.
The test is therefore important for quality control.
BIS lists IS 3495 Part 2:2019 as the method for determining water absorption of burnt clay building bricks. (BIS Services)
14. IS 3495 Part 3 — Efflorescence
Efflorescence refers to the formation of whitish deposits on the surface of masonry units.
It is associated with soluble salts that can move with moisture and crystallize at or near the surface.
The appearance of efflorescence can negatively affect the appearance of exposed masonry.
The severity of efflorescence can be assessed through the prescribed test procedure.
IS 3495 Part 3:2019 covers determination of efflorescence. (BIS Services)
15. IS 3495 Part 4 — Warpage
Warpage refers to deviation of a brick surface or edge from the intended flat or straight geometry.
Excessive warpage can affect:
Mortar joint thickness
Wall alignment
Appearance
Contact between units
Masonry workmanship
BIS lists IS 3495 Part 4:2019 for determination of warpage of burnt clay building bricks. (BIS Services)
16. IS 3495 Part 5 — Initial Rate of Absorption
The initial rate of absorption, commonly called IRA in masonry practice, indicates how rapidly a brick absorbs water initially.
This property can influence the interaction between the brick and mortar.
If a brick absorbs water too rapidly, it can remove water from mortar at the interface, potentially affecting workability and bond development.
BIS lists IS 3495 Part 5:2021 as the method for determination of initial rate of absorption. (BIS Services)
17. IS 3495 Part 6 — Modulus of Rupture
Modulus of rupture is related to the flexural behaviour of the brick.
The test provides information about resistance to bending-type loading.
BIS identifies IS 3495 Part 6:2022 as the method for determining modulus of rupture of burnt clay building bricks. (BIS Services)
18. Building Tiles
Tiles are thin, relatively flat units used for finishing and protecting building surfaces.
They can be manufactured from:
Clay
Ceramic materials
Cement concrete
Natural or engineered materials
PVC
Vitrified ceramic compositions
Other specialized materials
Tiles are used on:
Floors
Walls
Roofs
Bathrooms
Kitchens
Staircases
Terraces
Balconies
External elevations
Walkways
Pavements
The choice of tile depends on:
Location
Traffic
Moisture exposure
Abrasion
Chemical exposure
Slip resistance
Appearance
Cleaning requirements
Cost
Installation method
19. Ceramic Tiles
Ceramic tiles are manufactured mainly from mineral raw materials that are shaped and fired to produce a hard ceramic body.
They can be:
Glazed
Unglazed
Wall tiles
Floor tiles
Decorative tiles
Low-absorption ceramic products
The manufacturing sequence generally includes:
Raw materials → Grinding → Mixing → Forming → Drying → Glazing where applicable → Firing → Sorting → Packing
BIS currently lists IS 15622:2017, Pressed Ceramic Tiles — Specification, first revision, with an amendment, as a relevant product specification. The standard deals with pressed ceramic glazed and unglazed tiles and includes requirements associated with dimensions, tolerances, mechanical, physical and chemical characteristics and surface quality. (BIS Services)
The BIS information also references different ceramic tile groups associated with water absorption ranges, illustrating the importance of water absorption in tile classification. (BIS Services)
20. Manufacturing of Ceramic Tiles
Raw Material Preparation
Raw materials are selected according to the desired body composition.
They may contain combinations of clay minerals, feldspathic materials, silica and other mineral constituents.
Grinding
The raw materials are reduced to an appropriate particle size.
Fine and uniform particles improve mixing and forming.
Mixing
Different components are mixed to achieve a consistent composition.
Water or other process aids may be introduced depending on the manufacturing process.
Forming
Modern ceramic tiles are commonly formed under controlled pressure.
Pressed forming provides good dimensional control.
Drying
The shaped tiles are dried to remove moisture before firing.
Glazing
For glazed products, a surface coating is applied.
Glazing can provide:
Colour
Pattern
Gloss
Stain resistance
Decorative appearance
Surface protection
Firing
The tiles are fired at controlled temperatures.
The firing process develops the final ceramic structure.
21. Terrazzo Tiles
Terrazzo is a decorative composite material traditionally made using cementitious binder and selected aggregate chips.
The aggregates may include materials such as marble or other decorative stone chips.
A terrazzo surface is typically valued for:
Decorative appearance
Durability
Variety of colours
Ability to polish the surface
Long service life when properly manufactured and installed
For cement concrete flooring tiles, IS 1237:2012 covers plain cement, plain coloured and terrazzo types. The BIS preview specifically states that the standard covers cement concrete flooring tiles of plain cement, plain coloured and terrazzo types. (BIS Services)
The BIS product-manual information also identifies IS 1237:2012 as the specification for cement concrete flooring tiles. (BIS)
22. Terrazzo Flooring
Terrazzo can also be constructed in situ rather than being supplied as factory-made tiles.
For in-situ terrazzo flooring, IS 2114:2018 is listed by BIS as the code of practice for laying in-situ terrazzo floor finish. (BIS Services)
The general process involves:
Preparation of base
Application of appropriate underlayer
Placement of terrazzo topping
Compacting
Initial curing
Grinding
Polishing
Finishing
Cleaning and protection
Terrazzo requires careful control of aggregate distribution, thickness, curing, grinding and polishing to achieve a satisfactory surface.
23. PVC Tiles and PVC Flooring
PVC stands for Polyvinyl Chloride.
PVC-based flooring products are polymer-based flooring materials rather than traditional ceramic or cementitious tiles.
They can be supplied in various forms, including flexible sheets, planks and tile-like units.
Advantages can include:
Light weight
Easy cleaning
Variety of colours
Decorative patterns
Relatively fast installation
Comfortable surface characteristics
Availability in different thicknesses and designs
However, PVC flooring must be selected according to its intended application, traffic, temperature, chemical exposure, fire requirements and manufacturer specifications.
BIS's flooring standards program lists IS 3462:1986, Specification for Unbacked Flexible PVC Flooring, and IS 3461:1980, Specification for PVC asbestos floor tiles. The latter is an older asbestos-containing product standard and should not be casually equated with modern asbestos-free PVC flooring. (BIS Services)
For present-day projects, the applicable product specification and regulatory requirements should always be verified before selecting a PVC flooring material.
24. Vitrified Tiles
Vitrified tiles are highly densified ceramic products produced by controlled firing.
The word vitrified refers to the development of a glassy or vitrified phase within the ceramic body, resulting in a dense product with relatively low porosity.
Important characteristics commonly associated with vitrified tiles include:
Low water absorption
High density
Good surface durability
Good resistance to staining
Dimensional uniformity
Wide range of colours and patterns
Suitable applications in many residential and commercial areas
Vitrified products may be polished, glazed, matte, textured or designed to resemble natural stone or wood.
Because the category includes different products, the exact performance characteristics should be checked from the product technical data and applicable standard.
25. Ceramic Tiles vs Vitrified Tiles
PropertyCeramic TilesVitrified TilesBasic materialCeramic bodyHighly densified ceramic bodyManufacturingForming and firingControlled high-temperature densificationPorosityCan varyGenerally lowerWater absorptionDepends on product groupGenerally lowAppearanceWide varietyWide varietyApplicationWalls and floors depending on productFloors and many heavy-use areasSurfaceGlazed or unglazedPolished, matte, glazed or texturedMaintenanceGenerally easyGenerally easySelectionBased on application and specificationsBased on application, slip, wear and technical requirements
The table is a general engineering comparison; actual performance depends on the specific tile product.
26. Paver Blocks
Paver blocks are precast units used to construct paved surfaces.
They are manufactured from concrete or other specified materials and are commonly used for:
Footpaths
Parking areas
Driveways
Courtyards
Pedestrian areas
Roads
Industrial yards
Landscaping
Bus bays
Commercial areas
The principal advantages of paver construction include modularity, relatively rapid installation and the possibility of replacing individual units.
BIS currently identifies IS 15658:2021, Concrete Paving Blocks — Specification (First Revision). BIS laboratory information for this standard includes requirements/tests associated with dimensions, visual inspection, water absorption, compressive strength, tensile splitting strength, flexural strength, abrasion and other characteristics. (BIS LIMS)
27. Manufacturing of Concrete
Paver Blocks
The general manufacturing sequence is:
Material batching → Mixing → Moulding → Vibration/compaction → Demoulding → Curing → Inspection → Storage
Raw Materials
Depending on the specified product, materials may include:
Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Mineral admixtures
Chemical admixtures
Pigments
Water
BIS documentation for IS 15658 identifies specifications for materials such as cement, mineral admixtures, chemical admixtures, aggregates, pigments and water. (BIS LIMS)
Mixing
Materials are accurately proportioned and mixed to obtain a homogeneous concrete mixture.
Moulding
The mixture is placed into moulds.
Mechanical vibration and compaction help produce dense units.
Curing
Curing is essential for strength development.
Insufficient curing can reduce strength and durability.
Inspection
Finished blocks are checked for:
Dimensions
Shape
Surface
Cracks
Colour
Strength
Water absorption
Other specified properties
28. Interlocking Paver Blocks
Interlocking paver blocks are specially shaped units designed to fit together in a pavement arrangement.
The geometry of the blocks contributes to load distribution and resistance to movement when properly laid.
Interlocking paving systems generally consist of:
Prepared subgrade
Sub-base
Base layer where required
Bedding sand
Paver blocks
Jointing material
Edge restraints
The performance of an interlocking pavement depends not only on the strength of individual blocks but also on:
Subgrade preparation
Drainage
Layer thickness
Bedding material
Joint filling
Compaction
Edge restraint
Traffic conditions
BIS IS 16777:2019 provides recommendations for laying interlocking concrete paving blocks for roads, industrial areas and other paved surfaces exposed to different types of static, vehicular and pedestrian loading. It also addresses laying practices, patterns, drainage and maintenance. (BIS Services)
29. Paver Block Laying Procedure
A simplified construction sequence is:
Step 1 — Site Preparation
Remove unsuitable soil and vegetation.
Step 2 — Formation Preparation
Prepare the required level and slope.
Step 3 — Compaction
Compact the subgrade adequately.
Step 4 — Sub-base
Place and compact the specified sub-base material.
Step 5 — Base Course
Provide a base course where required by the pavement design.
Step 6 — Edge Restraint
Install appropriate edge restraints.
Step 7 — Bedding Layer
Spread the specified bedding material uniformly.
Step 8 — Laying Pavers
Place paver blocks according to the selected pattern.
Step 9 — Joint Filling
Fill joints with suitable material.
Step 10 — Compaction
Compact the finished pavement using appropriate equipment.
Step 11 — Inspection
Check levels, alignment, drainage and surface regularity.
30. Common Interlocking Patterns
Different patterns can be used depending on the application.
Examples include:
Herringbone
Basket weave
Stretcher bond
Running bond
Zig-zag patterns
Decorative combinations
Herringbone arrangements are widely used where good interlock is desired.
The selected pattern should be compatible with the pavement design, block geometry and traffic conditions.
31. Building Tiles — Selection Criteria
Choosing a tile should not be based only on colour or appearance.
An engineer should consider:
1. Location
Is the tile for:
Bathroom?
Kitchen?
Bedroom?
Staircase?
Terrace?
Exterior wall?
Parking area?
2. Water Exposure
Wet areas require appropriate water-related performance.
3. Traffic
High-traffic floors require appropriate resistance to wear and impact.
4. Slip Resistance
Wet areas and outdoor surfaces require careful attention to slip characteristics.
5. Chemical Exposure
Industrial or laboratory environments may require specialized products.
6. Surface Finish
Glossy, matte, textured and polished finishes behave differently.
7. Dimensions
Large-format tiles require suitable substrate preparation and installation techniques.
8. Maintenance
The expected cleaning method and frequency should be considered.
32. Brick Quality Control at Site
Before using bricks, site personnel should conduct basic visual inspection.
Check whether the bricks:
Have reasonably uniform colour
Are properly burnt
Have acceptable dimensions
Have reasonably sharp edges
Are free from excessive cracks
Are not severely distorted
Do not contain obvious harmful defects
Are suitable for the specified work
However, visual inspection cannot determine all engineering properties.
Laboratory tests are necessary when the project specification requires verified values for properties such as compressive strength and water absorption.
33. Simple Field Checks for Bricks
Some traditional site checks can provide preliminary information.
Soundness Check
Two bricks can be struck lightly against each other.
A relatively clear ringing sound is traditionally considered an indication of a hard, well-burnt brick.
This is only a preliminary field observation and should not replace standardized laboratory testing.
Hardness Check
A hard surface should resist light scratching.
Shape Check
Bricks should be reasonably regular.
Edge Check
Edges should not be excessively broken or distorted.
Internal Structure
Where permitted, breaking a sample brick can help visually inspect the internal structure.
Again, these checks should be treated as preliminary quality-control observations rather than substitutes for BIS testing.
34. Stacking of Bricks
Proper stacking is essential after bricks arrive at the construction site.
Poor stacking can result in:
Breakage
Difficult counting
Contamination
Unsafe working conditions
Difficult handling
Unnecessary material losses
Bricks should be stacked on a firm and reasonably level surface.
35. Principles of Proper Brick Stacking
35.1 Firm Ground
The ground should be stable and capable of supporting the stack.
Avoid placing heavy stacks on weak, muddy or unstable surfaces.
35.2 Raised Storage
Where site conditions require protection from ground moisture, bricks should be stored on a suitable raised platform.
35.3 Stable Arrangement
Bricks should be arranged so that the stack remains stable.
The stack should not be excessively high if this creates a safety hazard.
35.4 Access
Adequate space should be left between stacks for workers and material handling.
35.5 Drainage
The storage area should not allow standing water to accumulate.
35.6 Protection
Bricks should be protected from unnecessary contamination with soil, debris or chemicals.
36. Stack Arrangement
Bricks can be stacked in regular rows.
The arrangement should allow:
Easy counting
Inspection
Loading
Unloading
Identification
Safe movement around the stacks
Different batches should preferably be identified separately when they have different sources, grades or delivery dates.
This is particularly important when quality testing is performed batch-wise.
37. Storage of Tiles
Tiles require different handling compared with bricks.
Tiles should be stored:
On a dry floor
Protected from excessive moisture
Away from heavy impact
In their original packaging where appropriate
According to manufacturer recommendations
Tile boxes should not be thrown or dropped.
Large-format tiles require special care because their dimensions can make them more vulnerable to breakage during handling.
Tiles from different batches may sometimes show differences in shade or calibration, so batch information should be retained until installation is complete.
38. Comparison: Bricks and Tiles
FeatureBricksTilesMain functionMasonry/building unitsSurface finishing/protectionTypical materialBurnt clayCeramic, cement, PVC, vitrified etc.ShapeGenerally rectangular blockThin flat unitMain propertiesStrength, absorption, durabilitySurface quality, wear, absorption, dimensionsMain applicationWalls and masonryFloors and wallsManufacturingMoulding/extrusion and firingForming and firing or casting/pressingInstallationMasonry mortarAdhesive/mortar/system-specificTestingStrength, absorption, efflorescence, warpage etc.Depends on product and standardStorageStacked carefullyPacked and protected from breakage
39. Environmental Considerations
Brick and tile production consumes energy, particularly during firing.
Traditional brick kilns can therefore have environmental impacts associated with:
Fuel consumption
Emissions
Dust
Land use
Material extraction
Modern manufacturing technologies can improve process control and energy efficiency.
Construction professionals should also consider:
Locally available materials
Recycled content where appropriate
Manufacturing energy
Service life
Maintenance requirements
Transportation distance
End-of-life possibilities
The most sustainable material is not determined by one property alone. The entire life cycle and application should be considered.
40. Practical Importance of BIS Standards
BIS standards provide a technical framework for materials and construction practices.
For bricks, IS 1077 provides the product specification for common burnt clay building bricks, while the IS 3495 series provides standardized test methods for important properties. (BIS Services)
For pressed ceramic tiles, IS 15622:2017 is a relevant BIS product specification. (BIS Services)
For cement concrete flooring tiles, IS 1237:2012 covers plain cement, plain coloured and terrazzo types. (BIS Services)
For concrete paving blocks, IS 15658:2021 provides the product specification, while IS 16777:2019 provides recommendations for laying paver blocks. (BIS LIMS)
Because standards can be revised or amended, project teams should verify the latest applicable edition and amendments through BIS before preparing specifications or accepting materials.
41. Common Defects in Bricks
Under-Burnt Bricks
These bricks have not received adequate firing.
Possible characteristics include:
Lower strength
Higher porosity
Poor durability
Softer surface
Over-Burnt Bricks
Excessive firing may cause:
Distortion
Dark or vitrified appearance
Irregular shape
Reduced usefulness for certain masonry applications
Cracked Bricks
Cracks may develop due to:
Poor drying
Uneven firing
Improper raw material
Mechanical damage
Warped Bricks
Warping can result from manufacturing or firing problems.
Excessive warpage affects masonry workmanship.
42. Common Tile Defects
Tiles may exhibit:
Cracks
Chipping
Warping
Shade variation
Surface pinholes
Glaze defects
Dimensional variation
Edge damage
Poor surface finish
Before installation, tiles should be inspected.
A contractor should not mix visibly different batches without checking shade and dimensions.
43. Practical Site Checklist for Bricks
Before accepting a brick delivery:
Visual
☐ Uniform appearance
☐ No excessive cracks
☐ Proper shape
☐ Acceptable edges
☐ Proper burning
Dimensional
☐ Required dimensions
☐ Reasonable uniformity
☐ No excessive distortion
Technical
☐ Required grade
☐ Compressive strength where specified
☐ Water absorption where specified
☐ Efflorescence assessment where required
☐ Other specified tests
Storage
☐ Firm ground
☐ Safe stacking
☐ Proper drainage
☐ Separate batches where required
44. Practical Site Checklist for Tiles
Before accepting tiles:
☐ Check manufacturer and product identification
☐ Check batch number
☐ Check size
☐ Check thickness
☐ Check shade
☐ Check surface finish
☐ Inspect for cracks
☐ Inspect edges
☐ Check quantity
☐ Check relevant technical specification
☐ Store boxes safely
☐ Protect against impact and moisture
For large projects, test certificates and technical data should be reviewed according to the project specification.
45. Bricks and Tiles in Modern Construction
Modern construction provides many alternatives to traditional clay bricks and conventional flooring.
For walls, engineers may select:
Burnt clay bricks
Fly ash-lime bricks
Concrete blocks
AAC blocks
Stabilized soil blocks
Hollow clay blocks
For flooring and surface finishes, options include:
Ceramic tiles
Vitrified tiles
Terrazzo
Cement concrete tiles
PVC flooring
Natural stone
Concrete paver blocks
Each material has a specific technical and economic role.
Therefore, material selection should be based on engineering requirements rather than appearance alone.
46. Key Differences Between Brick Manufacturing Methods
AspectManual ManufacturingMechanical ManufacturingLabourHighLower per unitProduction rateLowerHighDimensional consistencyDepends on worker skillGenerally more controlledEquipmentSimpleAdvancedInitial investmentLowerHigherAutomationLowHighProduction controlMore variableMore systematicSuitabilitySmall/traditional productionLarge-scale production
Neither method should be judged only by its production system. The final quality depends on raw material, process control, drying, firing and quality assurance.
47. Important Engineering Properties of Bricks
When evaluating bricks, the following properties are particularly important:
Compressive Strength
Indicates resistance to compressive load.
Water Absorption
Indicates the amount of water absorbed under the specified test procedure.
Efflorescence
Indicates the tendency toward surface salt deposits.
Warpage
Indicates geometric distortion.
Initial Rate of Absorption
Indicates initial water absorption behaviour.
Modulus of Rupture
Provides information about flexural resistance.
These properties are addressed through the IS 3495 testing series. (BIS Services)
48. Importance of Curing in Paver Blocks
Curing is one of the most important stages in concrete paver manufacturing.
Concrete requires adequate moisture and suitable conditions for cement hydration.
Poor curing can result in:
Reduced strength
Increased cracking
Poor surface quality
Reduced durability
The curing process should therefore follow the manufacturer's controlled production system and applicable specification.
Paver blocks should not be treated simply as moulded concrete pieces. Their final performance depends on material proportioning, compaction, curing and quality control.
49. Drainage in Interlocking Pavements
Drainage is extremely important for paved surfaces.
Water should not remain trapped beneath the pavement.
Poor drainage can contribute to:
Loss of subgrade strength
Settlement
Joint erosion
Pavement deformation
Surface failures
The BIS code for laying paver blocks specifically includes recommendations concerning drainage and maintenance. (BIS Services)
Therefore, a successful paver pavement is not just a collection of attractive blocks. It is a complete pavement system.
50. Conclusion
Bricks and tiles are fundamental building materials with applications ranging from structural and partition masonry to floor, wall, roof and pavement finishes.
Traditional burnt clay bricks are manufactured by preparing suitable earth, moulding, drying, firing, cooling and sorting. Manufacturing may be manual or mechanical. Mechanical systems can provide higher production rates and greater process control, while traditional manual methods remain important in many locations.
For common burnt clay building bricks, IS 1077:1992 provides requirements relating to classification, general quality, dimensions and physical requirements. (BIS Services)
The IS 3495 series provides important test methods. The current BIS information identifies Part 1:2019 for compressive strength, Part 2:2019 for water absorption, Part 3:2019 for efflorescence, Part 4:2019 for warpage, Part 5:2021 for initial rate of absorption and Part 6:2022 for modulus of rupture. (BIS Services)
Building tiles cover a wide range of products, including ceramic, terrazzo, cement concrete, PVC and vitrified tiles. IS 15622:2017 provides a relevant specification for pressed ceramic tiles, while IS 1237:2012 covers cement concrete flooring tiles including plain, coloured and terrazzo types. (BIS Services)
Concrete paver blocks are increasingly important for pedestrian areas, parking, roads and other paved surfaces. IS 15658:2021 specifies concrete paving blocks, while IS 16777:2019 provides guidance for laying interlocking paver blocks. (BIS LIMS)
Finally, correct storage and stacking are as important as manufacturing quality. Bricks should be stacked safely on firm, drained surfaces, while tiles should be protected from impact, moisture and damage. Proper inspection, testing, identification and storage help ensure that the material delivered to a project performs as intended.
For civil engineering students and site engineers, the essential principle is:
Good construction begins with correct material selection, proper testing, controlled installation and careful storage.
Key BIS Standards to Remember
StandardSubjectIS 1077:1992Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks — SpecificationIS 3495 Part 1:2019Compressive Strength of Burnt Clay BricksIS 3495 Part 2:2019Water AbsorptionIS 3495 Part 3:2019EfflorescenceIS 3495 Part 4:2019WarpageIS 3495 Part 5:2021Initial Rate of AbsorptionIS 3495 Part 6:2022Modulus of RuptureIS 15622:2017Pressed Ceramic TilesIS 1237:2012Cement Concrete Flooring TilesIS 15658:2021Concrete Paving BlocksIS 16777:2019Laying of Paver Blocks
The BIS sources cited above indicate these standards and their respective subjects; always verify the latest edition, amendments and project-specific requirements before using a standard for contractual or design purposes. (BIS Services)
Bricks and Tiles — 20 Points to Remember
Bricks are important building units mainly used for walls, partitions, foundations and other masonry work.
Traditional burnt-clay bricks are manufactured from suitable brick earth, containing clay, silica, alumina, lime, iron oxide and other constituents.
Clay provides plasticity, while silica helps control shrinkage and iron oxide contributes to the characteristic colour of fired bricks.
The main stages of brick manufacturing are preparation, moulding, drying, firing, cooling, sorting and storage.
Brick moulding can be done manually or mechanically. Mechanical production generally provides higher production and better dimensional control.
Drying is essential before firing because excessive moisture can cause cracking or damage during kiln heating.
Proper burning or firing develops the strength, hardness and durability of clay bricks.
IS 1077:1992 specifies requirements for common burnt clay building bricks, including classification, quality, dimensions and physical requirements.
IS 3495 provides standardized test methods for important properties of burnt clay bricks.
Important brick tests include compressive strength, water absorption, efflorescence, warpage, initial rate of absorption and modulus of rupture.
Ceramic tiles are manufactured from mineral raw materials through processes such as grinding, mixing, forming, drying and firing.
IS 15622:2017 is an important BIS specification for pressed ceramic tiles.
Terrazzo tiles contain decorative aggregate chips in a cementitious or suitable matrix and can provide a durable decorative finish.
IS 1237:2012 covers cement concrete flooring tiles, including plain, coloured and terrazzo types.
PVC flooring is a polymer-based flooring option available in different designs, forms and performance characteristics.
Vitrified tiles are highly densified ceramic products generally characterized by low porosity and low water absorption.
Paver blocks are precast units used for footpaths, parking areas, driveways, roads and other paved surfaces.
IS 15658:2021 specifies requirements for concrete paving blocks, while IS 16777:2019 provides recommendations for laying interlocking concrete paving blocks.
Proper stacking and storage of bricks and tiles prevents breakage, contamination, moisture damage and unnecessary material loss.
Remember the basic principle: Select the right material, verify its quality through appropriate tests, follow the applicable BIS standard, install it correctly, and store it safely.
